Saints and Feasts of August

The Month of August in the Orthodox Church

Martyrology of the Month of August (Fresco)

First Sunday of August - Saints and Feasts of the First Sunday of August

1 - Saints and Feasts of August 1

What I Looked For and Found in the Orthodox Church

By His Eminence Metropolitan Nicholas

of Mesogaia and Lavreotiki

In the Church I met rare people, with virtue and authenticity, mature, cultured, true Christians, gentle souls. I met, dare I say, saints. I did not meet such people generally in my life. These Christians stood out differently from other people. I have to admit, I never saw signs or miracles. They were not needed.

Hieromartyr Kosmas the Aitolos (+ 1779) [1 of 2]

St. Kosmas Aitolos (Feast Day - August 24)

By Monk Moses the Athonite

The great Equal to the Apostles, the enlightener of the enslaved Nation, the wondrous, holy, glorious and beloved by the people Hieromartyr, was born in the village of Mega Dendron of Aitolia in 1714. Specifically he was from between the villages of Mega Dendron and Taxiarchae of the Trichonida Mountains in a district called Apokouro. His parents were from Epirus: "The parents of a pious son, by whom he was brought up and educated in the education and admonition of the Lord, as the Apostle says."

How One Is Led From Unbelief To Belief

By Elder Teofil Paraian

I don't know if anyone can say that they led someone else to faith by their own power.

I have followed cases, as much as I am able, where people were led to the knowledge of God back in the olden days and in our time now. As many cases as I was able to follow I learned from.

Saint John the Baptist Resource Page

September 5 - Holy Prophet Zechariah and his Wife Elizabeth

Holy Prophet Zechariah, Father of John the Baptist, Resource Page

September 23 - Conception of Saint John the Forerunner

Conception of Saint John the Baptist Resource Page

The Attributes of the Honorable Forerunner and Baptist John

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

When the priest, my beloved brethren, does the dismissal of the Divine Liturgy and every other service, he commemorates after Christ various saints in the following order, namely the Panagia and Mother of Christ, the Honorable Cross, the Angels, the Honorable Forerunner and Baptist, the Apostles, the Martyrs, the venerable Fathers, the saints of the day and lastly all the saints. It thus seems clear that the Honorable Forerunner has a high position, between the Panagia and the Apostles. And this shows the great importance the Church gives to the person of the Honorable Forerunner.

A Conversation With Elder Ephraim of Arizona

The following conversation was recorded by monastic spiritual children from Greece of Elder Ephraim of Arizona, formerly of Philotheou, who visited him in May 2014 at the Sacred Monastery of Saint Anthony the Great in Arizona.

When the Panagia Wept Before World War I and World War II in Rhodes

By John Sanidopoulos

Panagia Katholiki was built over the ruins of an ancient Byzantine church, and according to an inscription over the door of the narthex it was built in 1839. The epithet "Katholiki" implies that she is universally venerated.

Last week a strange phenomenon took place in Kremasti, Rhodes in the Cathedral of Panagia Katholiki a few days before its feast, which celebrates annually on August 23rd in honor of the Apodosis of the Dormition of the Theotokos. An oil lamp hanging in front of the icon of the Panagia began to swing without ceasing, causing hundreds of Rhodians and beyond to come and witness the strange phenomenon and venerate the Panagia.

The Life and Lore of Saint Phanourios

St. Phanourios the Great Martyr and Newly Revealed (Feast Day - August 27)

By Dr. Helen Rossidou-Koutsou (Philologist - Byzantinist)

Little and vague is our knowledge from written tradition concerning the life of Saint Phanourios (as shown by his synaxarion).

His holy icon was found accidentally on August 27th sometime after 1350, in the ruins of a church in Rhodes. Since then it was established to celebrate the Saint on the day of the discovery of his icon.

Pouqueville on Greek Fasting Practices in 1798

Francois Pouqueville in front of Ioannina (Collection du Chateau de Versailles)

When Francois Pouqueville was held hostage by the Turks in Ottoman Greece in 1798, he gained the respect of the Turks and Greeks alike as a physician, treating and curing the people who were unaware of French medical techniques. One of the practices of the impoverished and enslaved Greeks that made him question their sanity was their rigorous faithfulness and honor of the fasts of the Orthodox Church, despite having practically nothing to eat otherwise. The following is taken from his book Travels in Greece and Turkey (ch. 12):

Thoughts and Opinions on Peace from Orthodox Christian Youth

The Association of Orthodox Youth of the Sacred Metropolis of Ierissos, with the prayers of His Eminence Metropolitan Theoklitos, organized the 12th Functional Youth Meeting at the Sacred Shrine of Megali Panagia in Halkidiki, titled "Peace in our Troubled World", in August 2014.

There they studied peace with God, peace with themselves, peace with others and peace in the Church. There were also extensive discussions.

Some thoughts and opinions were very important. We have written them down, offered them and distributed them for the youth of our age.

Sunday as the Lord's Day According to St. Kosmas the Aitolos

Sacred Metropolis of Gortynos and Megalopoleos

Dimitsana - Megalopolis

Sunday 24 August 2014

A Sermon of the Metropolitan

1. Today, my Christian brethren, the 24th of August, our holy Church celebrates the memory of a great Saint, that of the Holy Hieromartyr and Equal to the Apostles Kosmas the Aitolos. He was an Athonite Hieromonk who was pained when he heard that many Christians in our enslaved Greek nation were uncatechized, and thus they changed their beliefs. This is why, with the blessing of his Elder, he left the Monastery and went on an apostolic journey, which brought him to be martyred for the love of Christ.

The Panagia is Making Her Presence Known in Rhodes

On Wednesday, 20 August 2014, Orthodox faithful in the Sacred Church of Panagia Katholiki in Kremasti, Rhodes were speaking of a miracle they all witnessed.

More specifically and according to what has so far become known, a tall woman dressed in the black of an employee at a security company entered the church on Wednesday night. She went to the central oil lamp hanging before the icon of the Panagia and gave it a swing, then she left the church and disappeared without being noticed by those in attendance.

Icon of St. Innocent of Moscow Begins Weeping at Khabarovsk Orthodox Seminary

On August 20th a strange phenomenon was witnessed in Khabarovsk when it was observed that the icon of the patron of the Theological School in the region, Saint Innocent (Veniaminov) of Moscow and missionary to Alaska, began weeping. This icon is in the chapel of the seminary.

The Unique Fresco of the Smiling Panagia in Cappadocia

A unique fresco from the 11th century in the Central Anatolian Gumusler Monastery, also called Eski Gumus (Old Silver) Monastery, depicts the Virgin Mary and the Christ Child smiling. This famous rock-cut Monastery was only rediscovered in 1963 and the smile may have been added during the restoration process.

The Place of the Theotokos in the Orthodox Church (2 of 2)

...continued from part one.

Question: The Fathers, speaking the language of theology with inspiration, have established "She Who is Wider Than the Heavens" (Πλατυτέρα των Ουρανών) as being between that which is created and that which is uncreated. What does this mean?

That the Qualities of the Soul Exist by the Grace of God

By St. John of Damascus

The soul, accordingly, is a living essence, simple, incorporeal, invisible in its proper nature to bodily eyes, immortal, reasoning and intelligent, formless, making use of an organized body, and being the source of its powers of life, and growth, and sensation, and generation, nous being but its purest part and not in any wise alien to it; (for as the eye to the body, so is the nous to the soul); further it enjoys freedom and volition and energy, and is mutable, that is, it is given to change, because it is created. 

The Place of the Theotokos in the Orthodox Church (1 of 2)

The following is taken from an interview on a Cypriot radio station in May of 1989 with Archimandrite Vasilios of Iveron.

Question: A famous hymn of our Church calls the Panagia "heaven": "She showed herself to be the heaven and temple of divinity" (Αὕτη γὰρ ἀνεδείχθη οὐρανὸς καὶ ναὸς τῆς θεότητος). Fr. Vasilios, would you like to discuss a little the place of "She Who is Wider Than the Heavens" (Πλατυτέρα των Ουρανών) in our Orthodox Church?

Eldress Anastasia and the Monastery of Our Lady of the Angels in Kerkyra

The Monastery of Our Lady of the Angels is in the village of Riglades in the southern part of the island of Corfu (Kerkyra).

An inscription in the Monastery indicates it was constructed in 1656, but sources say it was built between 1696-1700 by the family of Barlaam Kapodistrias to honor the Panagia who saved his sons from drowning.

The Prophet Samuel, the Fruit of Noetic Prayer

Holy Prophet Samuel (Feast Day - August 20)

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

The person of the Prophet Samuel, who we celebrate today, holds a great place in the Old Testament, as well as in the Church of Christ. He is one of those people who paved the way for the incarnation of the Son and Word of God and was obedient in all things to the will of God throughout his life. In today's homily we will highlight some points of his life.

"The Seer: The Life of the Prophet Samuel and its Relevance Today" (New Book by Metr. Hierotheos of Nafpaktos)

The Seer describes the life and work of the Prophet Samuel, called ‘the Seer’ and ‘the man of God’ by his contemporaries, who lived in the period of the Old Testament and is a saint of our Church (Aug. 20).

The author examines the fascinating life of the Prophet and uses events from it to illustrate the relationships between parents and children, spiritual fathers and their disciples, and rulers and those they rule from a theological perspective.

An Eye-Witness Testimonial About the Annual Bright Cloud of Mount Tabor

Every year on August 6th according to the Julian Calendar followed by the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, a bright cloud descends on Mount Tabor during the All-Night Vigil Service for the Feast of the Holy Transfiguration of Christ.

The following testimony comes from an older couple who travelled to the Holy Land a few years ago, and the husband was moved when he recounted his experience on Mount Tabor.

Saint Kosmas Aitolos Honored in the Village of Tsouka Where He Preached

To celebrate the 300th anniversary of the birth of the great missionary and martyr St. Kosmas the Aitolos, the village of Tsouka in western Fthiotida took the opportunity to honor him on Sunday August 17th. 

200 People Baptized Orthodox in the Nyamazi River of Rwanda

Georges Mana

August 18, 2014

Ierapostoli

News from the Orthodox Diocese of Burundi and Rwanda:

Today on 17th August 2014, His Grace Bishop Innocentios Byakatonda has baptized 200 people in the Nyamazi River located in the Kirehe District of the Eastern Province of Rwanda. After the baptism His Grace Bishop Innocentios conducted the Divine Liturgy in that valley where over 800 people were present.

Rocket Dropped in Orthodox Church in Ukraine Does Not Explode (photos)

Porphyry D. Staphyla
August 17, 2014
Dimpe News

On the night of the 16th into the 17th of August, the Church of the Holy Apostles Peter and Paul in the town of Mospyne in the region of Dontesk was hit by a rocket 1.5 meters in length by a Grad missile launcher. It entered the church after a strange orbit.

First Divine Liturgy Since 1922 Takes Place in the Last Surviving Orthodox Church in Smyrna

Stratis Balaskas
August 18, 2014
Amen.gr

A historic moment was experienced on Sunday morning in Smyrna (Izmir) for those who attended the first Divine Liturgy since 1922 in the renovated Church of Saint Boukolos (Ayavukla). This church is dedicated to the patron saint of Smyrna and is the only Orthodox Christian Church to not burn in the catastrophe of 1922. It is located in the district of Basmane and was recently renovated by the City of Izmir. From 1922 until the renovation it was used as a warehouse then as a classical music concert hall and opera house, and later initially as an archaeological museum and then as a repository of antiquities, until it was repaired.

Saints Floros and Lavros as Models for our Lives

Sts. Floros and Lavros (Feast Day - August 18)

By Protopresbyter Fr. George Papavarnavas

Saints Floros and Lavros were twin brothers. They entered life on the same day and they also departed it on the same day, after giving their testimony for Christ and sealing it with the blood of their martyrdom. They lived in the first Christian centuries during a period of persecution, however it is unknown exactly when. They came from Byzantium and were catechized in the faith of Christ by Saints Proclus and Maximus, who were also martyred for Christ. Also, from these Saints they were also taught the art of stonemasonry, which they practiced and made their livelihood with. After the martyrdom of their teachers they left for Illyria and settled in the city of Ulpiana, where they continued practicing their trade. The prefect admired their skills and gave them a blueprint and the required money to build a temple to idols. The Saints distributed the money to the poor and when they built the temple - by the Grace of God and with the help of an angel, who helped and served them - they demolished the idols with the poor, and they consecrated the temple and dedicated it to the worship of the true God.

Fr. John Romanides Resource Page

"My good friend, the most pious Presbyter John Romanides, is not an ordinary theologian. He learned theology in two or three Universities and with the help of asceticism which illumined his soul. He knows four languages and is deeply educated. He is literally a monk, fed by the Holy Fathers and the holy liturgical life of the Orthodox Church, singing hymns to God 'seven times a day'."

- Elder Theoklitos Dionysiatis (Athonite Flowers, 1962)

"Take every class you can from Fr. John Romanides. He teaches the truth."

- Elder Aimilianos of Simonopetra (advice to a theology student)

HIS LIFE AND THOUGHT

Theology in Greece in the 1960's

Eldress Eulambia Romanides (+ 1980)

Saint Paisios the Athonite and the Clairvoyant Eldress Eulambia Romanides

The Repose of Fr. John Romanides (+11/01/2001)

The Relationship and Correspondence Between Fr. George Florovsky and Fr. John Romanides

My Teacher Fr. John Romanides and my Spiritual Father Fr. George Florovsky

The Theologian of Empirical Theology

Not A Licensed Theologian

Talking About The Devil

New Book About Fr. John Romanides' Orthodox Dogmatics Presented In Athens

The Theological Legacy of Fr. John Romanides Ten Years After His Repose

Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos Lecture on Fr. John Romanides (video)

Life and Veneration of Saint Stamatios of Volos (+ 1680)

St. Stamatios of Volos (Feast Day - August 16)

Biography and Martyrdom

Information about the life of Saint Stamatios come from three sources: his contemporary John Kariophyllis, who wrote a short account about the Neomartyr, Saint Nikodemos the Hagiorite also wrote about him in his New Martyrology, in which he refers to his source John Kariophyllis but also indicates a different date for his martyrdom, and the Athonite monk Iakovos Kophos of New Skete, who along with the martyrdom also wrote a Service of Praise in his honor in 1860.

A Tenth Century Icon of the Holy Mandylion from Sinai

By Hierodeacon Silouan Peponakis

In the Old Testament, in the books of 1 and 2 Deuteronomy, there is clear reference to the prohibition of the worship of other gods, as well as a prohibition against the depiction of divine images as a prerequisite to the realization of this divine commandment given to the chosen people for their entrance into the Land of Promise. The Promised Land is a prefigurement, an image of the Kingdom of God (Leonid Ouspensky, The Theology of the Icon in the Orthodox Church).

Dormition of the Theotokos Resource Page

Verses

That the world-saving Maiden died is no marvel,

Since, in the flesh, the world’s Maker died also.

God’s Mother lives forever, though she died on the fifteenth.

The Holy Cross (August 1-15)

Holy Cross Resource Page

Synaxarion for the Forefeast of the Procession of the Holy Cross

Feast of the Procession of the Venerable Wood of the Cross From August 1 - 14

The Healing Properties of the True Cross in Constantinople


August 1 - Synaxis of Panagia Tavriotissa

Synaxis of Panagia Tavriotissa at the Church of Saint George in Tavros of Attica


August 6 - Transfiguration of Christ

Transfiguration of Christ Resource Page


August 12 - Annunciation of the Metastasis of the Theotokos

Synaxarion of the Annunciation of the Metastasis of the Theotokos


About the Feast of the Dormition

Synaxarion of the Dormition of the Theotokos

History of the Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos

History of the Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos

The Dormition of the Theotokos

On the Feast of the Dormition of the Theotokos

The Fast and Preparation for the Feast of the Dormition

Why We Fast for the Dormition of the Theotokos (St. Symeon of Thessaloniki)

The Dormition Fast

The Dormition Fast

Fasting Resource Page

Monk Moses: "The Mother of God's Fifteen Days of August Has Arrived"

August: the Month of the Panagia - the Summer Pascha

August 15th: "The Summer Pascha"

The Genuine and True Celebration of the Dormition of the Theotokos

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

The hymns compiled by the hymnographers of the Church for Christians to celebrate feasts, as well as today's feast of the Dormition of our Panagia, are masterpieces, as much in the structure, images and cosmetic adjectives they use, as well as in their content, which respond to the great existential problems of man, such as about life and death. When reading carefully these hymns one is amazed by their wisdom and beauty.

The Three Ways the Theotokos Magnified the Lord

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

In today's great feast of the Mother of God, the Dormition of the Theotokos, my beloved Christians, the Church has arranged that during the Service of Matins the Gospel passage that should be read is the one that refers to the visit of the Panagia to Elizabeth after her Annunciation and the conception of Christ. As soon as Elizabeth called her the mother of the Christ and showed her deep respect, the Panagia poured out a hymn and doxology to God. The first verse of this doxology says: "My soul magnifies the Lord" (Lk. 1:46). In other words: "My soul glorifies the Lord".

The Divinely Exquisite Fifteenth of August

By Monk Moses the Athonite

The Orthodox Church ascribes especial great honor to the person of the Panagia. This honor is shown in the close relationship of the Most-Holy Theotokos with mankind. The Panagia is the greatest and best offering of humanity to Divinity.

The Theotokos and Mother of the Light

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

The feast we are festively celebrating in the middle of August indicates to us the all-revered person of our Panagia. The feast is designated as the "Dormition of our Most-Holy Lady the Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary". In these words are hidden the entire mystery of our Panagia, which is associated with the mystery of Christ. In the sermon today we will make a short analysis of the words in this title "Dormition of our Most-Holy Lady the Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary".

Holy Prophet Micah as a Model for our Lives

Holy Prophet Micah (Feast Day - January 5 & August 14)

By Protopresbyter Fr. George Papavarnavas

The Prophet Micah was born in Moresheth, which is why he is called "the Moreshite". He belonged to the tribe of Judah and is among the twelve lesser prophets. Micah lived in Jerusalem from 748-696 B.C. during the reigns of kings Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, when the Kingdom of Judah suffered from continuous invasions from the Assyrians. He was almost a contemporary of the Prophet Isaiah. His book, written in the Hebrew language, is distinguished for its eloquence and clarity of phrases and consists of seven chapters. The first three chapters announce the destruction of Samaria. In the next two he prophesied the incarnation of the Word of God, the Second Person of the Holy Trinity.

Saint Porphyrios and the Depressed Man with AIDS

At one time, I took a sick person to him [Elder Porphyrios] who was diagnosed with AIDS. Some of my friends who knew that I was friendly with Elder Porphyrios of Athens and Oropos, Greece (+1991) asked me to help this sick person who was extremely depressed. The AIDS victim was in really bad shape and he wanted to commit suicide. When I heard that he wanted to commit suicide, I sent him to another priest who was also a doctor. His name is Fr. Stamatis. The sick person went to this priest but the priest advised him to go and see Elder Porphyrios.

Saint Porphyrios Speaks of an Incident of an Attempted Suicide

St. Porphyrios of Kavsokalyva speaks of an incident of an attempted suicide of a young woman who was slandered, and the love and providence of God.

The post-war years were very difficult, and people struggled to live. As I said, at that time I was at the Polyclinic. I remember many incidents from that time. Listen to one of them.

The Suicide Phenomenon

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

Suicide or self-murder is an ancient phenomenon, which is often accompanied by the phrase "desperate step", declaring it an act of despair, that is, a lack of rationality and hope. Suicide is essentially a lack of meaning for life, an identification of life with small goals, with economic goods, and shows an aimless life.

The Dream of Elder Ephraim of Katounakia

In a dream I saw that I went to my village, where I was born.

I didn't go to my paternal home, but I went to the church.

Archbishop Irinaios of Crete: "We Need a New Direction and New Course"

Helen Bouchalaki

July 1, 2014

News Creta

In the context of change and upheaval in every human life in general and in Crete in particular, News Creta spoke with Archbishop Irinaios of Crete. Here is the interview:

- We are living in strange and difficult times in which all of humanity is possessed with uncertainty and anxiety. Particularly on the island of Crete do you judge that this phenomenon is more limited?

Holiness and Martyrdom in our Times: A Beneficial Interview

Holiness, asceticism, discernment and martyrdom are great riches of our Church that move us, attract us, transform us and save us from the distractions and lies of this world in every era.

In an interview with His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou, he gives answers to the questions of a journalist (George Theoharis from Agioritikovima.gr) on these issues, and speaks of other aspects of ecclesiastical life.

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Question: Your Eminence, many people are unsure if saints exist today. What do you say?

The Underground Church of the Prophet Elijah in Australia

About 800 kilometers north from Adelaide, in the region of South Australia, there is a unique monument, not only of Serbian but also of world culture and architecture. It is the Church of Prophet Elijah, completely situated underground.

A Snake of the Panagia Has Finally Appeared in Kefallonia (2014)

According to news sources from Kefallonia, the first and only snake so far made its appearance in the Church of the Dormition of the Theotokos in the village of Arginia at 1:00 in the morning on Monday, August 11th, and this was followed by the bells joyfully peeling for the delightful and much anticipated event.

Announcement from the Patriarchate of Jerusalem on the "Blinking" Icon of the Panagia

Official Announcement from the Patriarchate of Jerusalem Posted on its Website

The Icon of the Panagia in the Church of the Resurrection

August 8, 2014

Saint Lawrence of Rome as a Model for our Lives

St. Lawrence of Rome (Feast Day - August 10)

By Protopresbyter Fr. George Papavarnavas

Archdeacon Lawrence lived in third century Rome and was involved in significant work, especially in the field of welfare. The Pope of Rome, Sixtus II, who is registered in the list of saints of the Orthodox Church as a venerable martyr, entrusted to him the management of ecclesiastical property. During the persecution Saint Lawrence was arrested and the pagan ruler ordered him to hand over the treasures of the Church. Then he asked for some time in order to gather them and he returned with a large convoy of wagons, which were full of the poor, the disabled, widows and orphans. He explained to the angry ruler, that these are the treasures of the Church, since all her material wealth is stored in them. A mandate was then given for him to be tortured harshly, and the angry pagans tortured him and roasted him alive on an iron grill. His relic was received by a devout Christian named Hippolytus and he buried him. This became known and Hippolytus was arrested and he also sealed his testimony for Christ with the blood of his martyrdom, after having endured cruel tortures.

The Importance of Attending Church

By Elder Teofil Paraian

I insist on everyone to go to, if not every service, at least to the Divine Liturgy. And if someone happens to not go to the Divine Liturgy, I do not even sit down and talk with them. Because I have nothing to say to them. 

For example: 

When I asked someone what he does at the time he should be in church, he replied: "I watch television."

The Orthodox Church in Mesopotamia

By A.K.

Mesopotamia, the mythical East, the land of Eden, Babylon, the Persians and the Arabs, is in a constant turmoil of war.

The Church there was founded through the preaching of the Apostles Thomas, Thaddeus and others of the Seventy.

We will make a brief mention and tribute to this Church so that we will remember it and be moved to pray for it to the Lord and for our brethren there.

Prayer to Heaven and Death from Heaven

By His Eminence Metropolitan Hierotheos

of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

Not long ago we followed the ceremony in the gardens of the Vatican for peace in Palestine and in the Middle East in general, and this event was brought together by the Pope. This event was attended by the leaders of Israel and the Palestinian Authority and the religious leaders of Orthodox, the various Christian Confessions, the Jews and Muslims. During the musical break, where it took the position of a "musical meditation", each religious leader read various passages from religious books that specifically refer to peace.

Saint Aimilianos of Cyzicus as a Model for our Lives

St. Aimilianos the Confessor (Feast Day - August 8)

By Protopresbyter Fr. George Papavarnavas

Saint Aimilianos lived in the 8th and 9th century and he was Bishop of Cyzicus from 787 until 815. He was a fervent and zealous confessor of the Orthodox faith who struggled vigorously against the heresy of the Iconoclasts and stood up for the restoration of sacred icons. The heretics fought against him in every way, and he was tried through a variety of temptations, afflictions, persecutions and exiles.