Loukas Notaras, Known as the "Pillar of the Romans", Was Executed By the Sultan Five Days After the Fall of Constantinople

Loukas Notaras was the last Megas Doux of the Roman Empire. This position (literally Grand Duke, but more appropriately Lord High Admiral) had been expanded under the late Palaiologoi emperors and functioned as an unofficial Prime Minister, overseeing the Imperial Bureaucracy in place of the Megas Logothetes who had previously exercised this function.

Because of his famous phrase "I would rather see a Muslim turban in the midst of the City than the Latin mitre," he is often thought to have been in league with the Synaxis and the Orthodox resistance to the Union of Churches established by the Synod of Ferrara-Florence. This is in fact not the case, as he worked with Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos to secure Western aid by whatever avenues they could find while simultaneously attempting to avoid riots by the Orthodox faithful. You could say he was against the Union, but he was not fanatical and looked for pragmatic solutions. Unfortunately for his memory, this pragmatic middle course led to his vilification by both sides of the debate, attacks which were not lessened by the intense politicking going on among the late Imperial hierarchy. Constantine's close friend and personal secretary, George Frantzis, for instance, seldom has a charitable word for Notaras and his antipathy was adopted by Edward Gibbon in turn.

The Causes of the Fall of Constantinople, According to Joseph Bryennios

By Metropolitan Hierotheos of Nafpaktos and Agiou Vlasiou

The fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453 was the culmination of the declining glory of the Roman Empire, the so-called Byzantium. Much has been written about the causes of this fall, which presents the situation in which the Roman Empire-Byzantium was at that time, since all of Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace was lost and only Constantinople and its environs remained. The occasional enemies had inflicted great damage, culminating in a final blow by the Frankish occupation of Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade on April 13, 1204. After a few years (1261) its recapture and liberation offered nothing really substantial, because the city was already destroyed and completely looted.

Apart from the political and social causes that contributed to the fall of Constantinople, special mention should be made of the spiritual causes to which we usually do not pay much attention.

The Fall of Constantinople, 1453

By Dionysios Hatzopoulos

When, at the age of twenty-one, Mehmed II (1451-1481) sat on the throne of the Ottoman Sultans his first thoughts turned to Constantinople. The capital was all that was left from the mighty Christian Roman Empire and its presence, in the midst of the dominions of the powerful new rulers of the lands of Romania, was pregnant with danger. The new Sultan demonstrated diplomatic abilities, during his early attempts to isolate politically the Byzantine capital, when he signed treaties with the Emperor's most important Western allies, the Hungarians and the Venetians. He knew, however, that these were temporary measures, which would provide him with freedom of movement for a limited time only. To give the final blow on the half-dead body of the Byzantine Empire he had to move fast. He was so much preoccupied by his project of conquest that, according to the contemporary Greek Historian Michael Dukas, his mind was occupied by it day and night. A successful expedition against his enemy Ibrahim the Emir of Karamania, in central Asia Minor, postponed briefly his plans. He was back in his capital Hadrianople in May 1451, where he set in motion his great project. The first step was to isolate the Byzantine capital, both economically and militarily. Already, during the winter of 1451 he began recruiting competent builders, familiar with military works and fortifications, whose mission would be to build a powerful fortress on the Bosphorus. Its construction, supervised by the Sultan, began in the middle of April 1452. Built on the European side, at the narrowest point of the strait, called initially the Cutter of the throat (Boghaz-kesen), it became eventually known as Rumeli Hisar. It was a huge complex of strong fortifications whose task was to shut completely, by its artillery, to Western and Byzantine vessels the route to and from the Black Sea. The new fortress complemented the one that had been built on the Anatolian shore, at the time of Sultan Bayazid I (1389-1402), about six miles south of Constantinople, which was known as Anadolu Hisar. The presence of the two fortresses made clear to everyone that the Sultan was the real master of the straits. From now on, all ships intending to enter the Black Sea had to pay tolls. If they refused they would be sank. Indeed, near the end of 1452 a Venetian vessel attempted to pass without paying the required tolls. It was sank by the new fortress's guns, its crew of thirty men was taken prisoner. The officers and sailors were brought to the Sultan, who ordered their immediate execution. The act was rightly interpreted by the Venetian and Genoese governments as an indication of hostilities soon to break. However, despite all the indications and the realization that a new siege of Constantinople was to begin at any moment, the two Italian Republics, under political and economic pressures at home, reacted without much enthusiasm.

Constantine's Kingdom, Consecrated by Christ

By Fr. Alexander Schmemann

 

In Constantine’s mind the Christian faith, or rather, faith in Christ, had not come to him through the Church, but had been bestowed personally and directly for his victory over the enemy — in other words, as he was fulfilling his imperial duty. Consequently the victory he had won with the help of the Christian God had placed the emperor — and thereby the empire as well — under the protection of the Cross and in direct dependence upon Christ. This also meant, however, that Constantine was converted not as a man, but as an emperor. Christ Himself had sanctioned his power and made him His intended representative, and through Constantine’s person He bound the empire to Himself by special bonds. Here lies the explanation of the striking fact that the conversion of Constantine was not followed by any review or re-evaluation of the theocratic conception of empire, but on the contrary convinced Christians and the Church itself of the emperor’s divine election and obliged them to regard the empire itself as a consecrated kingdom, chosen by God.
 

- From Historical Road of Eastern Orthodoxy, Crestwood, NY: St. Vladimir’s Seminary Press, 1977 p. 65-66.

 

 

Saint Ariadne, Empress of the Romans (+ 515)

St. Ariadne the Empress of the Romans (Feast Day - August 22);
the bust of Ariadne is at the Louvre Museum in Paris.

The Roman Empire had clashed with barbarians on the northern border for centuries, but lost this war during the reign of Emperor Valens (364-378). In the war with the Goths, Emperor Valens died on the battlefield and Rome was on the brink of collapse. Emperor Theodosius, who came to the throne in such a period, decided to be friends instead of fighting barbarians.

This policy was politically successful and brought prosperity. On the other hand, it led to the rise of foreign soldiers in the army, such as Goths, Vandals, Germans and Isaurians. For example, General Aspar of Germanic origin played a major role in the crowning of Emperor Leo I (457-474).

If it were possible, Aspar himself would have wanted to become an emperor. However, it was still not acceptable for a barbarian to come to the Roman throne at that time. However, this rule would change only one generation later. An Isaurian general who married the daughter of Emperor Leo changed his name to Zeno. He would be the first barbarian-born emperor in Roman history.

Was Emperor Constantine XI Palaiologos A Uniate?

By John Sanidopoulos

Emperor John XIII Palaiologos led the delegation that ultimately signed for the union with the Pope during the Synod of Ferrara-Florence. When the emperor John XIII died in October 1448, the process of electing a new emperor began, who was ultimately John's brother, Constantine XI Palaiologos. Overall, the last Roman emperor reigned from March 12, 1449 until May 29, 1453. Here are a summary of some of the proofs that Constantine Palaiologos was not a Uniate but an Orthodox Christian:

The Commemoration of Soldier Saints on January 3rd

According to the Synaxarion of Constantinople, two saints associated with the military were commemorated on January 3rd in the Eastern Roman Empire - St. Theagenes of Parium and St. Gordius of Caesarea in Cappadocia. St. Theagenes of Parium is described as a Bishop who was being held in prison for refusing to enter into military service, since he considered himself to be a servant and soldier of Christ. St. Gordius of Caesarea was a centurion, who abandoned his office because as a Christian he could no longer endure to hear the name of Christ blasphemed, and became a hermit outside the city. Both are said to have lived under Emperor Licinius in the early fourth century and were martyred. Both are also described as having rejected earthly military service to serve as a soldier of God instead. Why were both Saints commemorated on January 3rd?

Saint Maurice, Emperor of the Romans, With His Six Sons

On November 28th the Orthodox Church commemorates Saint Maurice, Roman Emperor from 582 to 602, together with his six sons, who were all executed together in 602.

Below is a history of the Saint of Syrian origin:

Empress Eudocia and the Apple of Discord

According to the Chronographia of the ecclesiastical historian John Malalas (c. 491-578), upon being named Augusta by her husband Emperor Theodosius II on 2 January 423, Eudocia succeeded her sister-in-law, Pulcheria, who had been Augusta since 414.

The relationship between the two women consisted of rivalry over power. Eudocia was jealous over the amount of power Pulcheria had within the court, while Pulcheria was jealous of the power Eudocia could claim from her. Their relationship created a "pious atmosphere" in the imperial court, and probably explains why Eudocia traveled to the Holy Land in 438.

Saint Justinian II Rhinotmetos, the Pious Emperor of the Romans (+ 711)

St. Justinian II the Pious Emperor (Feast Day - August 2)

Verses

Your scepter was not seen as a hindrance O master,
For you dwell in the kingdom above.

Justinian II was the eldest son of Emperor Constantine IV and Anastasia. His father raised him to the throne as joint emperor in 681 on the fall of his uncles Heraclius and Tiberius. In 685, at the age of sixteen, Justinian II succeeded his father as sole emperor. Though at times undermined by his own despotic tendencies, Justinian was a talented and perceptive ruler who succeeded in improving the standing of the Roman Empire.

Commemoration of the Holy Martyrs Killed by the Bulgarians During the Reign of Nikephoros the Emperor

Holy Martyrs Killed by the Bulgarians (Feast Day - July 23);
Khan Krum feasts while a servant brings the skull of Nikephoros I
fashioned into a drinking cup.

Verses

Righteous men were tortured in various ways,
Men who were killed in various ways.

Emperor Nikephoros, who is called the Patrician and in general Logothetis, in the ninth year of his reign, which was the year 811 after Christ, left Constantinople to do battle against the Bulgarians, with his entire army, having with him his son Staurakios, and his son-in-law Michael. Gathering in a battle with the Bulgarians, they defeated them as a nation, and raised up a notable banner. Proud of this victory, as one who is thoughtless, he sat in luxury, abiding among food and drink, careless of imperial things; such carelessness caused the Bulgarians to gain courage.

Commemoration of the Attack Through Terrible Threats and Violence by the Barbarian Raid

Commemoration of the Barbarian Raid Against Constantinople (June 5th)

On this day we commemorate the philanthropy of God in the attack against us through terrible threats and violence in the barbarian raid, when all of us who were destined to justly be taken prisoners, and given over to be killed by knives, the compassion and philanthropy of God through his inner mercy, redeemed us who were beyond hope.

It is unknown which barbarian raid this refers to, but it is clear that this commemoration was made on this day because a barbarian raid took place against Constantinople, and the citizens of the City, although feeling as if they were beyond hope, were saved in some way by the mercy of God.

An Ottoman Volunteer Defends Besieged Constantinople (1453)

By Nikos Nikoloudis

At the fall of Constantinople, in 1453, it was not only Greeks pitched against Turks, as is, perhaps, widely believed, but there was also a good number of foreigners involved. Some of these were forced to fight on the side of the Ottomans, such as an attachment of Serbs sent by the despot of medieval Serbia, Đurađ Branković, who was a subject of the Ottomans. Others again, such as Orban, the Hungarian (or Rumanian) canon maker, joined the Ottomans on the expectation of making a profit (Orban was richly rewarded for the construction of the massive bombard which the Turks used during the siege and which was trained, for the most part, on the gate of Saint Romanos). Most of the foreigners, however, were in the opposing camp, on the side of the Byzantines. It is well known that close to or within Constantinople lived many foreigners, mainly Italians, who maintained commercial interests in the City. They were inevitably obliged to take part in its defence, in order to preserve their favoured trading position. Among these were people from Venice, Ancona, and Catalonia, while the Genoese, who had under their control the neighbouring suburb of Peran (today’s Galata) maintained a favourable stance towards the Constantinopolitans after the beginning of the final siege.

A Prayer of the Emperor When Departing the City of Constantinople

Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos crowned by Christ, ivory, ca. 945

In the Roman world, the responsibility for protecting civilization lay in the hands of one human being: the emperor of the Romans. All authority had been delegated to the emperor by God, and the legitimacy of all states, officials and armies emanated down from the imperial person and were thus subordinate to him as he was in turn subordinate to Christ. As the deacon Agapetos reminded Justinian, the latter had “been entrusted by God with the empire of the world." The basic nature of this authority was the emperor’s responsibility to maintain, uphold and protect Christian Roman civilization against enemies internal and external: from the internal with laws and from the external with armies and fortifications. The scholar-emperor Constantine Porphyrogennitos (913-959) encapsulates the awesome scope of the emperor’s responsibility in his account of the ritual prayer for urban protection the emperor made when leaving the capital city of Constantinople.

The Singing Emperor Who Was Murdered in Church on Christmas Day

Emperor Leo V leading the chanting at Christmas,
12th-century Madrid Skylitzis, Fol. 23r top.

By John Sanidopoulos

On Christmas morning in the year 820, while the iconoclast Emperor Leo V the Armenian was chanting in the palace chapel of Saint Stephen to celebrate the birth of the Lord, he was brutally murdered in the sanctuary. This took place because his friend Michael II the Stammerer became disgruntled with Leo V, when the Emperor divorced Michael's sister-in-law, and he began a plan to dethrone him. On Christmas Eve 820, Leo V accused him of conspiracy, jailed him, and sentenced him to death. Leo concocted a scheme where Michael was to be tied to an ape and cast into the bathhouse furnace of Zeuxippos, to be either maimed by the monkey or die from burning or dehydration under the heated bathhouse floor. It was the empress Theodosia, we are told, who fatefully interceded for Michael, imploring Leo not to taint his rule with such a savage act on the sacred feast of Christmas day. Leo too was troubled by the judgement he had passed upon his former friend and spent a sleepless night. He agreed to put off the execution until after the Christmas festivities. It would prove a fatal delay. During the night, Michael’s supporters put a conspiracy into action. Under the pretext of the prisoner wishing to confess his sins, a priest was sent for from the city. The servant sent to bring the priest summoned a number of conspirators who, disguised as monks, made their way into the Daphne palace complex and entered the Chapel of Saint Stephen, where the emperor would celebrate Christmas liturgy at dawn.

Saint John the Dermokaitis

St. John the Dermokaitis (Feast Day - November 27)

The memory of Saint John the Dermokaitis ("the Branded") is preserved in the Synaxarion of Delahaye, noting that he was an ascetic on Mount Olympos in Bithynia. He may be the same individual as John the Monk, who was known for the sanctity of his life, under Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos (919-944). Emperor Romanos sent a sealed epistle to this John the Monk, containing a confession of his sins.

Theophanes Continuatus reports that when Emperor Romanos was in exile on the Prince's Islands, having been deposed by his own sons, he had a dream in which he was dragged naked by two eunuchs to an enormous fire tended by a great number of demons, which occupied the entire Tzykanisterion, the imperial polo court at the palace. Two other people - one of Romanos' sons and the Bishop of Herakleia - were thrown in and burned, and the next day the emperor learned that they had both been put to death at the very time of his dream. Romanos was saved at the last moment in his dream by the Mother of God who appeared suddenly, stopped the eunuchs, asking them to be merciful, and clothed the terrified naked emperor.

The Only Church Dedicated to the Holy Emperor John Vatatzes

The first and only church dedicated to the so-called "Six-Fingered King", Holy Emperor John Vatatzes the Merciful (1193-1254), was consecrated on November 3, 2010 in Didymoteicho of Thrace, which was the birthplace of Saint John. Saint John ruled as second Emperor of Nicaea after the Crusaders took Constantinople in 1204, and he helped keep alive the spirit of Romiosini during these turbulent times, looking forward towards the recapturing of Constantinople. Until 1924 Saint John was primarily honored in Smyrna, but in more recent years his veneration increased at the place of his birth in Didymoteicho. With this church, pilgrims come from all over to venerate him. One unique feature of this church, is that it has no iconostasis.

Saint Constantine the New, Emperor of the Romans (+ 641)

St. Constantine the New of Constantinople (Feast Day - September 3);
Coin depicts Heraclius (left) with Constantine III (right)

Verses

Christ the King O pious Constantine,
Crowned you in heaven with an embellished crown.

Constantine III, born 3 May 612, was Roman Emperor for four months in 641, making him the shortest reigning Eastern Roman emperor. He was the eldest son of the Emperor Heraclius and his first wife Eudokia.

Constantine's birth name was Heraclius Novus Constantinus, which was also the official name under which he reigned. The name Constantine became established in later Byzantine texts as short for the Emperor and has become standard in modern historiography. In terms of official imperial nomenclature, the style "Constantine III" would be more appropriate for his son Constans II (r. 641–668).

How a Marriage Might Have Prevented the Fall of Constantinople

By John Sanidopoulos

Mara Branković was the daughter of Serbian monarch Đurađ (George) Branković and Irene Kantakouzene. She entered the harem of Sultan Murad II of the Ottoman Empire. Mara was betrothed to Murad II in June 1431. The betrothal was an attempt to prevent an invasion of Serbia from the Ottoman Empire, though periodic Ottoman raids continued. On 4 September 1435, the marriage took place at Edirne. Her dowry included the districts of Dubočica and Toplica.

Saint Theoktistos the Confessor (+ 855)

St. Theoktistos the Confessor (Feast Day - November 20)

Verses

The Patrician felt affection for the law of the Fathers,
Now he stands among the ranks of the chorus of the Fathers.

Saint Theoktistos was a leading official of Byzantium during the second quarter of the ninth century and the de facto head of the regency for the underage Michael III from 842 until his dismissal and murder in 855. A eunuch, he assisted in the ascent of Michael II to the throne in 822, and was rewarded with the titles of patrician and later magister. He held the high posts of chartoularios tou kanikleiou and logothetēs tou dromou under Michael and his son Theophilos. After Theophilos' death in 842, Theoktistos became member of the regency council, but soon managed to sideline the other members and establish himself as the virtual ruler of the Empire. Noted for his administrative and political competence, Theoktistos played a major role in ending Iconoclasm, and fostered the ongoing renaissance in education within the Empire. He also continued the persecution of the Paulicians, but had mixed success in the wars against the Arabs. When Michael III came of age in 855, his uncle Bardas persuaded him to throw off the tutelage of Theoktistos and his mother, the Empress Theodora, and on 20 November 855, Theoktistos was assassinated by Bardas and his followers.